As originally conceived, respondent conditioning (sometimes also called classical conditioning) begins with the involuntary responses to particular sights, sounds, or other sensations (Lavond, 2003). When I receive an injection from a nurse or doctor, for example, I cringe, tighten my muscles, and even perspire a bit. Whenever a contented, happy baby looks at me, on the other hand, I invariably smile in response. I cannot help myself in either case; both of the responses are automatic. In humans as well as other animals, there is a repertoire or variety of such specific, involuntary behaviors. At the sound of a sudden loud noise, for example, most of us show a “startle” response—we drop what we are doing (sometimes literally!), our heart rate shoots up temporarily, and we look for the source of the sound. Cats, dogs and many other animals (even fish in an aquarium) show similar or equivalent
responses.
Involuntary stimuli and responses were first studied systematically early in the twentieth-century by the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov (1927). Pavlov’s most well-known work did not involve humans, but dogs, and specifically their involuntary tendency to salivate when eating. He attached a small tube to the side of dogs’ mouths that allowed him to measure how much the dogs salivated when fed (Exhibit 1 shows a photograph of one of Pavlov's dogs). But he soon noticed a “problem” with the procedure: as the dogs gained experience with the experiment, they often salivated before they began eating. In fact the most experienced dogs sometimes began salivating before they even saw any food, simply when Pavlov himself entered the room! The sight of the experimenter, which had originally been a neutral experience for the dogs, became associated with the dogs’ original salivation response. Eventually, in fact, the dogs would salivate at the sight of Pavlov even if he did not feed them.
This change in the dogs’ involuntary response, and especially its growing independence from the food as stimulus, eventually became the focus of Pavlov’s research. Psychologists named the process respondent conditioning because it describes changes in responses to stimuli (though some have also called it “classical conditioning” because it was historically the first form of behavioral learning to be studied systematically). Respondent conditioning has several elements, each with a special name. To understand these, look at and imagine a dog (perhaps even mine, named Ginger) prior to any conditioning. At the beginning Ginger salivates (an unconditioned response (UR)) only when she actually tastes her dinner (an unconditioned stimulus (US)). As time goes by, however, a neutral stimulus—such as the sound of opening a bag containing fresh dog food is continually paired with the eating/tasting experience. Eventually the neutral stimulus becomes able to elicit salivation even before any dog food is offered to Ginger, or even if the bag of food is empty! At this point the neutral stimulus is called a conditioned stimulus (UCS) and the original response is renamed as a conditioned response (CR). Now, after conditioning, Ginger salivates merely at the sound of opening any large bag, regardless of its contents. (I might add that Ginger also engages in other conditioned responses, such as looking hopeful and following me around the house at dinner time.)
Before Conditioning:
(UCS) Food→ Salivation (UR)
(UCS) Bell→ No response (UR)
During Conditioning:
Bell + Food→ Salivation
After Conditioning:
(CS) Bell only→ Salivation (CR)
See the others major theories and models of learning in our next topics...
Reference
Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton 2009: Educational Psychology Second Edition, Zurich, Switzerland
Saturday, March 8, 2014
Major theories and models of learning
Several ideas and priorities, then, affect how we teachers think about learning, including the curriculum, the difference between teaching and learning, sequencing, readiness, and transfer. The ideas form a “screen” through which to understand and evaluate whatever psychology has to offer education. As it turns out, many theories, concepts, and ideas from educational psychology do make it through the “screen” of education, meaning that they are consistent with the professional priorities of teachers and helpful in solving important problems of classroom teaching. In the case of issues about classroom learning, for example, educational psychologists have developed a number of theories and concepts that are relevant to classrooms, in that they describe at least some of what usually happens there and offer guidance for assisting learning. It is helpful to group the theories according to whether they focus on changes in behavior or in thinking. The distinction is rough and inexact, but a good place to begin. For starters, therefore, consider two perspectives about learning, called behaviorism (learning as changes in overt behavior) and constructivism, (learning as changes in thinking). The second category can be further divided into psychological constructivism (changes in thinking resulting from individual experiences), and social constructivism, (changes in thinking due to assistance from others). The rest of this chapter describes key ideas from each of these viewpoints. As I hope you will see, each describes some aspects of learning not just in general, but as it happens in classrooms in particular. So each perspective suggests things that you might do in your classroom to make students’ learning more productive.
Behaviorism: changes in what students do
Behaviorism is a perspective on learning that focuses on changes in individuals’ observable behaviors— changes in what people say or do. At some point we all use this perspective, whether we call it “behaviorism” or something else. The first time that I drove a car, for example, I was concerned primarily with whether I could actually do the driving, not with whether I could describe or explain how to drive. For another example: when I reached the point in life where I began cooking meals for myself, I was more focused on whether I could actually produce edible food in a kitchen than with whether I could explain my recipes and cooking procedures to others.
And still another example—one often relevant to new teachers: when I began my first year of teaching, I was more focused on doing the job of teaching—on day-to-day survival—than on pausing to reflect on what I was doing. Note that in all of these examples, focusing attention on behavior instead of on “thoughts” may have been desirable at that moment, but not necessarily desirable indefinitely or all of the time. Even as a beginner, there are times when it is more important to be able to describe how to drive or to cook than to actually do these things. And there definitely are many times when reflecting on and thinking about teaching can improve teaching itself. (As a teacher-friend once said to me: “Don’t just do something; stand there!”) But neither is focusing on behavior which is not necessarily less desirable than focusing on students’ “inner” changes, such as gains in their knowledge or their personal attitudes. If you are teaching, you will need to attend to all forms of learning in students, whether
inner or outward.
See the others major theories and models of learning in our next topics...
Reference
Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton 2009: Educational Psychology Second Edition, Zurich, Switzerland
Behaviorism: changes in what students do
Behaviorism is a perspective on learning that focuses on changes in individuals’ observable behaviors— changes in what people say or do. At some point we all use this perspective, whether we call it “behaviorism” or something else. The first time that I drove a car, for example, I was concerned primarily with whether I could actually do the driving, not with whether I could describe or explain how to drive. For another example: when I reached the point in life where I began cooking meals for myself, I was more focused on whether I could actually produce edible food in a kitchen than with whether I could explain my recipes and cooking procedures to others.
And still another example—one often relevant to new teachers: when I began my first year of teaching, I was more focused on doing the job of teaching—on day-to-day survival—than on pausing to reflect on what I was doing. Note that in all of these examples, focusing attention on behavior instead of on “thoughts” may have been desirable at that moment, but not necessarily desirable indefinitely or all of the time. Even as a beginner, there are times when it is more important to be able to describe how to drive or to cook than to actually do these things. And there definitely are many times when reflecting on and thinking about teaching can improve teaching itself. (As a teacher-friend once said to me: “Don’t just do something; stand there!”) But neither is focusing on behavior which is not necessarily less desirable than focusing on students’ “inner” changes, such as gains in their knowledge or their personal attitudes. If you are teaching, you will need to attend to all forms of learning in students, whether
inner or outward.
See the others major theories and models of learning in our next topics...
Reference
Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton 2009: Educational Psychology Second Edition, Zurich, Switzerland
The learning process: Teachers’ perspectives on learning
Learning is generally defined as relatively permanent changes in behavior, skills, knowledge, or attitudes resulting from identifiable psychological or social experiences. A key feature is permanence: changes do not count as learning if they are temporary. You do not “learn” a phone number if you forget it the minute after you dial the number; you do not “learn” to eat vegetables if you only do it when forced. The change has to last. Notice, though, that learning can be physical, social, or emotional as well as cognitive. You do not “learn” to sneeze simply by catching cold, but you do learn many skills and behaviors that are physically based, such as riding a bicycle or throwing a ball. You can also learn to like (or dislike) a person, even though this change may not happen deliberately.
For teachers, learning usually refers to things that happen in schools or classrooms, even though every teacher can of course describe examples of learning that happen outside of these places. Even Michael, at age 6, had begun realizing that what counted as “learning” in his dad’s educator-type mind was something that happened in a classroom, under the supervision of a teacher (me). For me, as for many educators, the term has a more specific meaning than for many people less involved in schools. In particular, teachers’ perspectives on learning often emphasize three ideas, and sometimes even take them for granted: (1) curriculum content and academic achievement, (2) sequencing and readiness, and (3) the importance of transferring learning to new or future situations.
For teachers, learning usually refers to things that happen in schools or classrooms, even though every teacher can of course describe examples of learning that happen outside of these places. Even Michael, at age 6, had begun realizing that what counted as “learning” in his dad’s educator-type mind was something that happened in a classroom, under the supervision of a teacher (me). For me, as for many educators, the term has a more specific meaning than for many people less involved in schools. In particular, teachers’ perspectives on learning often emphasize three ideas, and sometimes even take them for granted: (1) curriculum content and academic achievement, (2) sequencing and readiness, and (3) the importance of transferring learning to new or future situations.
How educational psychology can help
All things considered, then, times have changed for teachers. But teaching remains an attractive, satisfying, and worthwhile profession. The recent trends mean simply that you need to prepare for teaching differently than you might have in the past, and perhaps differently than your own school teachers did a generation ago. Fortunately, there are ways to do this. Many current programs in teacher education provide a balance of experiences in tune with current and emerging needs of teachers. They offer more time for practice teaching in schools, for example, and teacher education instructors often make deliberate efforts to connect the concepts and ideas of education and psychology to current best practices of education. These and other features of contemporary teacher education will make it easier for you to become the kind of teacher that you not only want to be, but also will need to be.
Reference
Cochran-Smith, M. & Fries, K. (2005). Research teacher education in changing times: Politics and
paradigms. In M. Cochran-Smith & K. Zeichner (Eds.), Studying teacher education: The report of the
AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education, 69-110.
Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Educational Testing Service. (2004). Study guide for Principles of Learning and Teaching, 2nd edition.
Princeton, NJ: Author.
Fuhrman, S. & Elmore, R. (2004). Redesigning accountability systems for education. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Reference
Cochran-Smith, M. & Fries, K. (2005). Research teacher education in changing times: Politics and
paradigms. In M. Cochran-Smith & K. Zeichner (Eds.), Studying teacher education: The report of the
AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education, 69-110.
Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Educational Testing Service. (2004). Study guide for Principles of Learning and Teaching, 2nd edition.
Princeton, NJ: Author.
Fuhrman, S. & Elmore, R. (2004). Redesigning accountability systems for education. New York: Teachers
College Press.
What is I/O Psychology
Industrial psychology is a relatively new branch of psychology that was created for corporation and organization that needed more structure. Industrial psychology is able to provide this structure by evaluating employee behavior employee behavior for the good of the company. It is often referred to as organizational psychology because of its emphasis on analyzing individual who work for various organization.
Essentially, Industrial psychology studies the behavior of employees in a work setting.
Essentially, Industrial psychology studies the behavior of employees in a work setting.
Social Psychology applied in Psychology
The IAAp is the oldest worldwide association of scholars and practitioners, They Identifed some psychological field.
Topics of Study:
Social psychologists seek to unravel the mysteries of individual and social life in areas as wide-ranging as prejudice, romantic attraction, persuasion, friendship, helping, aggression, conformity, and group interaction. Although social psychology has traditionally focused on aspects of the individual, and social psychology on aspects of the situation, the two perspectives are tightly interwoven in psychological explanations of human behavior.
A Scientific Approach:
Social psychologists, observing our social worlds and trying to understand why people behave, think, and feel as they do. and social psychologists, Systematically observing and describing people's actions, measuring or manipulating aspects of social situations and they use the methods of science.
Basic and Applied Research:
Scientists in all fields distinguish between basic and applied research in psychology. Basic research in social psychology tends to focus on fundamental questions about people and their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Applied research in social psychology focuses on more narrow arenas of human life, such as health, business, and law.
Career Options:
Social psychologists combine an understanding of human behavior with training in sophisticated research methods; they have many opportunities for employment. Many psychologists teach and do research in universities and colleges, housed mostly in departments of psychology but also in departments of business, education, political science, justice studies, law, health sciences, and medicine. The research of such individuals may be based in the laboratory, in the field, in the clinic, or in historical archives. Many personality and social psychologists are employed in the private sector as consultants, researchers, marketing directors, managers, political strategists, technology designers, and so on. Social psychologists also work in government and nonprofit organizations, designing and evaluating policy and programs in education, conflict resolution, environmental protection, and the like.
Becoming a Social Psychologist:
Although some social psychologists go to graduate school to earn a terminal masters degree (M.S. or M.A.), most seek a doctoral degree (Ph.D.). For some careers, a master’s degree may be sufficient. Generally, however, the doctorate is preferred by employers and is usually necessary for employment as a professor at a university or college.
Reference
Lewin K. (1951). Field Theory in social science, New york: Harper and Row.
Dorken,H.(1986), Professional Psychology in Transition, San Francisco:Joss-Bass.
Topics of Study:
Social psychologists seek to unravel the mysteries of individual and social life in areas as wide-ranging as prejudice, romantic attraction, persuasion, friendship, helping, aggression, conformity, and group interaction. Although social psychology has traditionally focused on aspects of the individual, and social psychology on aspects of the situation, the two perspectives are tightly interwoven in psychological explanations of human behavior.
A Scientific Approach:
Social psychologists, observing our social worlds and trying to understand why people behave, think, and feel as they do. and social psychologists, Systematically observing and describing people's actions, measuring or manipulating aspects of social situations and they use the methods of science.
Basic and Applied Research:
Scientists in all fields distinguish between basic and applied research in psychology. Basic research in social psychology tends to focus on fundamental questions about people and their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Applied research in social psychology focuses on more narrow arenas of human life, such as health, business, and law.
Career Options:
Social psychologists combine an understanding of human behavior with training in sophisticated research methods; they have many opportunities for employment. Many psychologists teach and do research in universities and colleges, housed mostly in departments of psychology but also in departments of business, education, political science, justice studies, law, health sciences, and medicine. The research of such individuals may be based in the laboratory, in the field, in the clinic, or in historical archives. Many personality and social psychologists are employed in the private sector as consultants, researchers, marketing directors, managers, political strategists, technology designers, and so on. Social psychologists also work in government and nonprofit organizations, designing and evaluating policy and programs in education, conflict resolution, environmental protection, and the like.
Becoming a Social Psychologist:
Although some social psychologists go to graduate school to earn a terminal masters degree (M.S. or M.A.), most seek a doctoral degree (Ph.D.). For some careers, a master’s degree may be sufficient. Generally, however, the doctorate is preferred by employers and is usually necessary for employment as a professor at a university or college.
Reference
Lewin K. (1951). Field Theory in social science, New york: Harper and Row.
Dorken,H.(1986), Professional Psychology in Transition, San Francisco:Joss-Bass.
Difference between Social psychology and Sociology
Social psychology attempts to understand the relationship between minds, groups, and behaviors in three general ways.
First, it tries to see how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. This includes social perception, social interaction, and the many kinds of social influence (like trust, power, and persuasion). Gaining insight into the social psychology of persons involves looking at the influences that individuals have on the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of other individuals, as well as the influence that groups have on individuals. This aspect of social psychology asks questions like:
* How do small group dynamics impact cognition and emotional states?
* How do social groups control or contribute to behavior, emotion, or attitudes of the individual members?
* How does the group impact the individual?
* How does the individual operate within the social group?
Second, it tries to understand the influence that individual perceptions and behaviors have upon the behavior of groups. This includes looking at things like group productivity in the workplace and group decision making. It looks at questions like:
* How does persuasion work to change group behavior, emotion or attitudes?
* What are the reasons behind conformity, diversity, and deviance?
Third, and finally, social psychology tries to understand groups themselves as behavioral entities, and the relationships and influences that one group has upon another group. It asks questions like:
*What makes some groups hostile to one another, and others neutral or civil?
* Do groups behave in a different way than an individual outside the group?
Sociology:
*The study of human social behavior, especially the study of the origins, organization, institutions, and development of human society.
*Analysis of a social institution or societal segment as a self-contained entity or in relation to society as a whole.
*Sociology tends to examine groups of persons, communities, and nations.
Reference
Lewin K. (1951). Field Theory in social science, New york: Harper and Row.
Dorken,H.(1986), Professional Psychology in Transition, San Francisco:Joss-Bass.
First, it tries to see how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. This includes social perception, social interaction, and the many kinds of social influence (like trust, power, and persuasion). Gaining insight into the social psychology of persons involves looking at the influences that individuals have on the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of other individuals, as well as the influence that groups have on individuals. This aspect of social psychology asks questions like:
* How do small group dynamics impact cognition and emotional states?
* How do social groups control or contribute to behavior, emotion, or attitudes of the individual members?
* How does the group impact the individual?
* How does the individual operate within the social group?
Second, it tries to understand the influence that individual perceptions and behaviors have upon the behavior of groups. This includes looking at things like group productivity in the workplace and group decision making. It looks at questions like:
* How does persuasion work to change group behavior, emotion or attitudes?
* What are the reasons behind conformity, diversity, and deviance?
Third, and finally, social psychology tries to understand groups themselves as behavioral entities, and the relationships and influences that one group has upon another group. It asks questions like:
*What makes some groups hostile to one another, and others neutral or civil?
* Do groups behave in a different way than an individual outside the group?
Sociology:
*The study of human social behavior, especially the study of the origins, organization, institutions, and development of human society.
*Analysis of a social institution or societal segment as a self-contained entity or in relation to society as a whole.
*Sociology tends to examine groups of persons, communities, and nations.
Reference
Lewin K. (1951). Field Theory in social science, New york: Harper and Row.
Dorken,H.(1986), Professional Psychology in Transition, San Francisco:Joss-Bass.
Coronary Heart Disease
Coronary heart disease refers to the failure of coronary circulation; a common form of disease affecting the heart and an important cause of premature death.
Coronary heart disease takes two principle forms.
Angina Pectoris and Myocardial infarction or Heart attack.
According to medical dictionary- Angina pectoris is a disease of the heart marked by sharp pain in the chest.
Characteristics of the Disease;
The symptoms of angina pectoris are periodic chest pains. Usually located behind the steps sternum and frequently radiating into the left shoulder and arm. The major came of these severe attacks of pain is an insufficient supply of oxygen is the heart due to plugging of the coronary arteries by deposit of fatly material.
Angina is generally precipitated physical or emotional exertion and is commonly relieved by rest or medication.
Myocardial infarction is a much more serious disorder and is the leading cause of death in the united state today. Like angina pectoris, myocardial infraction is caused by an insufficient supply of oxygen to the heart. The oxygen insufficiency is more extreme than in angina pectoris. Result from-
1. Coronary artery disease.
2. A general curtailment of the hearts blood supply through atherosclerosis, Or from coronary occlusion.
3. A sudden abstraction of a large coronary artery by deposits or a blood clot.
In both instances parts of the heart muscle die.
The American heart association lists seven factors related to increased risk for CHD.
0. Age
1. Sex (Males are at a greater risk)
2. Cigarette smoking
3. Elevated blood pressure.
4. Elevated serum cholesterol.
5. An increase in the size of the left ventricle of the heart as reverted by electrocardiogram.
6. Diabetes
The risks for heart disease generally increase with the number and severity of these factors.
Coronary heart disease takes two principle forms.
Angina Pectoris and Myocardial infarction or Heart attack.
According to medical dictionary- Angina pectoris is a disease of the heart marked by sharp pain in the chest.
Characteristics of the Disease;
The symptoms of angina pectoris are periodic chest pains. Usually located behind the steps sternum and frequently radiating into the left shoulder and arm. The major came of these severe attacks of pain is an insufficient supply of oxygen is the heart due to plugging of the coronary arteries by deposit of fatly material.
Angina is generally precipitated physical or emotional exertion and is commonly relieved by rest or medication.
Myocardial infarction is a much more serious disorder and is the leading cause of death in the united state today. Like angina pectoris, myocardial infraction is caused by an insufficient supply of oxygen to the heart. The oxygen insufficiency is more extreme than in angina pectoris. Result from-
1. Coronary artery disease.
2. A general curtailment of the hearts blood supply through atherosclerosis, Or from coronary occlusion.
3. A sudden abstraction of a large coronary artery by deposits or a blood clot.
In both instances parts of the heart muscle die.
The American heart association lists seven factors related to increased risk for CHD.
0. Age
1. Sex (Males are at a greater risk)
2. Cigarette smoking
3. Elevated blood pressure.
4. Elevated serum cholesterol.
5. An increase in the size of the left ventricle of the heart as reverted by electrocardiogram.
6. Diabetes
The risks for heart disease generally increase with the number and severity of these factors.
Wednesday, March 5, 2014
Concept of Reliability
Test reliability is the consistency of scores obtained by the same persons when retested with the identical test or with an equivalent from of the test (Anastasi & Urbina, 2005).
The concept of reliability underlies the computation of the error of measurement of a single score, whereby we can predict the range of fluctuation likely to occur in a single individual’s score as a result of irrelevant or unknown chance factors.
It has been used to cover several aspects of score consistency.
Test reliability indicates the extent to which individual differences in test score are attributable to true differences in the characteristics under consideration and the extent to which they are attribute to chance errors.
Measure of test reliability make it possible to estimate what proportion of the total variances of test score is error variance.
Since all types of reliability are concerned with the degree of consistency or agreement between two independently derived sets of scores, they can all be expressed in terms of a correlation coefficient.
The concept of reliability underlies the computation of the error of measurement of a single score, whereby we can predict the range of fluctuation likely to occur in a single individual’s score as a result of irrelevant or unknown chance factors.
It has been used to cover several aspects of score consistency.
Test reliability indicates the extent to which individual differences in test score are attributable to true differences in the characteristics under consideration and the extent to which they are attribute to chance errors.
Measure of test reliability make it possible to estimate what proportion of the total variances of test score is error variance.
Since all types of reliability are concerned with the degree of consistency or agreement between two independently derived sets of scores, they can all be expressed in terms of a correlation coefficient.
Limitations of Person centered counseling
The limitations of person centered theory are also noteworthy;
1. The approach may be too simplistic, optimistic, leisurely and unfocused for client in crisis or who need more structure and direction (Seligman 2006).
2. The approach depends on bright, insightful, hard working clients for best results. It has limited applicability and is seldom employed with the severely disabled or young children (Thompson & Henderson 2007).
3. The approach ignores diagnosis, the unconscious, developmental theories and innately generated sexual and aggressive drives. Many critics think it is overly optimistic.
4. The approach deals only with surface issues and does not challenges the client to explore deeper areas. Because person centered counseling is short term, it may not make a permanent impact on the person.
5. The approach is more attitudinal than a technique based. It is void of specific techniques to bring about client change (Moon 2007).
1. The approach may be too simplistic, optimistic, leisurely and unfocused for client in crisis or who need more structure and direction (Seligman 2006).
2. The approach depends on bright, insightful, hard working clients for best results. It has limited applicability and is seldom employed with the severely disabled or young children (Thompson & Henderson 2007).
3. The approach ignores diagnosis, the unconscious, developmental theories and innately generated sexual and aggressive drives. Many critics think it is overly optimistic.
4. The approach deals only with surface issues and does not challenges the client to explore deeper areas. Because person centered counseling is short term, it may not make a permanent impact on the person.
5. The approach is more attitudinal than a technique based. It is void of specific techniques to bring about client change (Moon 2007).
Strengths and Contributions of Person centered counseling
Person centered counseling’s unique aspects include the following;
1. The approach revolutionized the counseling profession by linking counseling with psychotherapy and demystifying it by making audiotapes of actual sessions and publishing actual transcripts of counseling sessions (Goodyear 1987).
2. The person centered approach to counseling is applicable to a wide range of human problems, including institutional changes, labor-management relationships, leadership development, career decision making and international diplomacy. For instance, Cornelius-White 2005 has found the person centered approach can be effective in promoting multicultural counseling. Likewise Lemoire and Chen 2005, have argued that the person centered approach seems to have the potential to create the necessary conditions that counteract stigmatization, allowing adolescents who are associated with a stigmatized sexual minority group to cope with their sexual identity in a manner that is more constructive for them.
3. The approach has generated extensive research (Tursi &Cochran 2006). It initially set the standard for doing research on counseling variables, especially those that Rogers 1957 deemed necessary and sufficient to being about therapeutic change.
4. The approach is effective in a number of settings, person centered counseling helps improve psychological adjustment, learning and frustration tolerance and decrease defensiveness. It is appropriate in treating mild to moderate anxiety states, adjustment disorders, and conditions not attributable to mental disorders, such as uncomplicated bereavement or interpersonal relations (Seligman 1997)
5. The person centered approach may be especially helpful in working with clients who have experienced tragedies since it allows them to struggle though emotion and actually become less affected in time by fully realizing feelings related to tragedies (Tursi & Cochran 2006).
6. The approach focuses on the open and accepting relationship established by counselors and clients and the short term nature of the helping process.
7. The basics of the approach take a relatively short time to learn. With its emphasis on mastering listening skills, person centered counseling is foundation for training many paraprofessional helpers. Furthermore it is the basis for several new and emerging approaches to treatment and it is frequently combined with other theoretical orientations to counseling such as cognitive and behavioral (Prochaska & Norcross 2007.
8. The approach has positive view of human nature and continues to evolve.
1. The approach revolutionized the counseling profession by linking counseling with psychotherapy and demystifying it by making audiotapes of actual sessions and publishing actual transcripts of counseling sessions (Goodyear 1987).
2. The person centered approach to counseling is applicable to a wide range of human problems, including institutional changes, labor-management relationships, leadership development, career decision making and international diplomacy. For instance, Cornelius-White 2005 has found the person centered approach can be effective in promoting multicultural counseling. Likewise Lemoire and Chen 2005, have argued that the person centered approach seems to have the potential to create the necessary conditions that counteract stigmatization, allowing adolescents who are associated with a stigmatized sexual minority group to cope with their sexual identity in a manner that is more constructive for them.
3. The approach has generated extensive research (Tursi &Cochran 2006). It initially set the standard for doing research on counseling variables, especially those that Rogers 1957 deemed necessary and sufficient to being about therapeutic change.
4. The approach is effective in a number of settings, person centered counseling helps improve psychological adjustment, learning and frustration tolerance and decrease defensiveness. It is appropriate in treating mild to moderate anxiety states, adjustment disorders, and conditions not attributable to mental disorders, such as uncomplicated bereavement or interpersonal relations (Seligman 1997)
5. The person centered approach may be especially helpful in working with clients who have experienced tragedies since it allows them to struggle though emotion and actually become less affected in time by fully realizing feelings related to tragedies (Tursi & Cochran 2006).
6. The approach focuses on the open and accepting relationship established by counselors and clients and the short term nature of the helping process.
7. The basics of the approach take a relatively short time to learn. With its emphasis on mastering listening skills, person centered counseling is foundation for training many paraprofessional helpers. Furthermore it is the basis for several new and emerging approaches to treatment and it is frequently combined with other theoretical orientations to counseling such as cognitive and behavioral (Prochaska & Norcross 2007.
8. The approach has positive view of human nature and continues to evolve.
Techniques of Person Centered Counseling
For person centered therapists, the quality of the counseling relationship is much more important than techniques (Glauser & Bozarth 2001) Rogers 1957 believed there are three necessary and sufficient conditions of counseling;
1. Empathy
2. Unconditional positive regard (acceptance, prizing)
3. Congruence (genuineness, openness, authenticity, transparency)
Empathy may be subjective, interpersonal or objective (Clark 2004, Rogers 1964) Often it is a combination of all three. In therapeutic situations empathy is primarily the counselor’s ability to feel with clients and convey this understanding back to them, This may be done in multiple ways but essentially empathy is an attempt to think with, rather than for or about, the client and to grasp the client’s communications, intentions and meaning (Brammer et al 1993). Rogers 1975 noted “The research keeps piling up and it points strongly to the conclusion that a high degree of empathy in a relationship is possibly the most potent and certainly one of the most potent factors in bringing about change and learning.
Unconditional positive regard also known as acceptance, is a deep and genuine caring for the client as a person-that is, prizing the person just for being (Rogers 1961, 1980)
Congruence is the condition of being transparent in the therapeutic relationship by giving up roles and facades (Rogers 1980. It is the “counselor’s readiness for setting aside concerns and personal preoccupation and for being available and open in relationship with the client (Moon 2007)
Since 1980, person centered counselors have tried a number of other procedures for working with clients, such as limited self disclosure of feelings, thoughts and values (Corey 2005). Clients, however, grow by experiencing themselves and others in relationship (Cormier & Cormier 1998). Therefore, Rogers 1967 believed that significant positive personality change could not occur except in relationships.
Methods that help promote the counselor-client relationship include, but are not limited to, active and passive listening, accurate reflection of thoughts and feelings, clarification, summarization, confrontation and general or open-ended leads. Questions are avoided whenever possible (Tursi & Cochran 2006).
1. Empathy
2. Unconditional positive regard (acceptance, prizing)
3. Congruence (genuineness, openness, authenticity, transparency)
Empathy may be subjective, interpersonal or objective (Clark 2004, Rogers 1964) Often it is a combination of all three. In therapeutic situations empathy is primarily the counselor’s ability to feel with clients and convey this understanding back to them, This may be done in multiple ways but essentially empathy is an attempt to think with, rather than for or about, the client and to grasp the client’s communications, intentions and meaning (Brammer et al 1993). Rogers 1975 noted “The research keeps piling up and it points strongly to the conclusion that a high degree of empathy in a relationship is possibly the most potent and certainly one of the most potent factors in bringing about change and learning.
Unconditional positive regard also known as acceptance, is a deep and genuine caring for the client as a person-that is, prizing the person just for being (Rogers 1961, 1980)
Congruence is the condition of being transparent in the therapeutic relationship by giving up roles and facades (Rogers 1980. It is the “counselor’s readiness for setting aside concerns and personal preoccupation and for being available and open in relationship with the client (Moon 2007)
Since 1980, person centered counselors have tried a number of other procedures for working with clients, such as limited self disclosure of feelings, thoughts and values (Corey 2005). Clients, however, grow by experiencing themselves and others in relationship (Cormier & Cormier 1998). Therefore, Rogers 1967 believed that significant positive personality change could not occur except in relationships.
Methods that help promote the counselor-client relationship include, but are not limited to, active and passive listening, accurate reflection of thoughts and feelings, clarification, summarization, confrontation and general or open-ended leads. Questions are avoided whenever possible (Tursi & Cochran 2006).
Goals of Person centered counseling
The goals of person centered counseling center around the client as a person not his or her problem. Rogers 1977 emphasize that people need to be assisted in learning how to come with situations. One of the main ways to accomplish this is by helping a client become a fully functioning person who has no need to apply defense mechanisms to everyday experience. Such an individual becomes increasingly willing to change and grow. He or she is more open to experience, more trusting of self perception, and engaged in self exploration and evolution (Rogers 1961). Furthermore, a fully functioning person develops a greater acceptance of self and other and becomes a better decision maker in the here and now. Ultimately a client is helped to identify, use and integrate his or her own resources and potential (Boy & Pine 1983)
Role of the counselor in Person centered counseling
The counselors role is holistic one. He or she sets up and promotes a climate in which the client is free and encouraged to explore all aspects of self (Rogers 1951, 1980). This atmosphere focuses on the counselor client relationship, which Rogers describes as one with a special “I-Thou” personal quality. The counselor is aware of the client’s verbal and nonverbal language, and the counselor reflects back what he or she is hearing or observing (Braaten 1986). Neither the client nor the counselor knows what direction the sessions will take or what goals will emerge in the process. The client is a person in process who is “entitled to direct his or her own therapy’(Moon 2007). Thus, the counselor’s job is to work as facilitator rather than a director. In the person centered approach, the counselor is the process expert and expert learner. Patience is essential (Miller 1996).
View of human nature in Person centered counseling
Implicit in person center counseling is a practical view of human nature: people are essential good (Rogers 1961). Humans are characteristically positive, forward-moving, constructive, realistic and trustworthy. Each person is aware, inner directed and moving toward self-actualization from infancy on.
According to Rogers, self actualization is the most prevalent and motivating drive of existence and encompasses actions that influence the total person. The organism has one basic tendency and striving, to actualize, maintain and enhance the experiencing organism. Person centered theories believe that each person is capable of finding a personal meaning and purpose in life. Dysfunctionality is really a failure to lean and change.
Rogers views the individual form a phenomenological perspective. What is important is the person’s perception of reality rather that an event itself. This way of seeing the person is similar to Adler’s. The concept of self is another idea that Rogers and Adler share. But for Rogers the concept is central to his theory that his ideas are often referred to as self theory. The self is an outgrowth of what a person experiences, and awareness of self helps a person differential himself or herself from others (Nye 2000)
For a healthy self to emerge, a person reeds positive regard- love, warmth, care, respect and acceptance. But in childhood, as well as later in life, a person often receives conditional regard from parents and others. Feelings of worth develop if the person behaves in certain ways because conditional acceptance teaches the person to feel valued only when conforming to other wishes. Thus, a person may have to deny or distort a perception when someone on whom the person depends for approval sees a situation differently.
An individual who is caught in such dilemma becomes aware of incongruities between self perception and experience. If a person does not do as others wish, he or she will not be accepted and valued. Yet if a person conforms, he or she opens up a gap between the ideal self and the real self. The future the ideal self is from the real self, the more alienated and maladjustment a person becomes.
According to Rogers, self actualization is the most prevalent and motivating drive of existence and encompasses actions that influence the total person. The organism has one basic tendency and striving, to actualize, maintain and enhance the experiencing organism. Person centered theories believe that each person is capable of finding a personal meaning and purpose in life. Dysfunctionality is really a failure to lean and change.
Rogers views the individual form a phenomenological perspective. What is important is the person’s perception of reality rather that an event itself. This way of seeing the person is similar to Adler’s. The concept of self is another idea that Rogers and Adler share. But for Rogers the concept is central to his theory that his ideas are often referred to as self theory. The self is an outgrowth of what a person experiences, and awareness of self helps a person differential himself or herself from others (Nye 2000)
For a healthy self to emerge, a person reeds positive regard- love, warmth, care, respect and acceptance. But in childhood, as well as later in life, a person often receives conditional regard from parents and others. Feelings of worth develop if the person behaves in certain ways because conditional acceptance teaches the person to feel valued only when conforming to other wishes. Thus, a person may have to deny or distort a perception when someone on whom the person depends for approval sees a situation differently.
An individual who is caught in such dilemma becomes aware of incongruities between self perception and experience. If a person does not do as others wish, he or she will not be accepted and valued. Yet if a person conforms, he or she opens up a gap between the ideal self and the real self. The future the ideal self is from the real self, the more alienated and maladjustment a person becomes.
Person centered counseling
Founder/Developers; Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is the person most identified with person-centered counseling. Indeed, it was Rogers who first formulated the theory in the form of nondirective psychotherapy in his 1942 book, counseling and psychotherapy. The theory later evolved into client centered and person centered counseling with multiple applications to groups, families and communities as well as individuals.
Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior
According to Cormier & Cormier 1998, verbal behaviors include communications that show a desire to comprehend or discuss what is important to the client. The behavior indicate that the counselor is focusing on the person of the client. Equally important are the counselor’s nonverbal behavior.
According to Mehrabian 1970, physically attending behaviors such as smiling, leaning forward, making eye contact, gesturing and nodding one’s head are effective nonverbal ways of conveying to clients that the counselor is interested in and open them.
Egan 2007 summarizes five nonverbal skills involved in initial attending. They are best remembered in the acronym SOLER. The S is a reminder to face client squarely. The O is a reminder to adopt an open posture. The L reminds the counselor to lean toward the client. The E represents eye contact and the R is a reminder to the counselor to relax. A counselor need to comfortable.
Okun and Kantrowitz 2008, list supportive verbal and supportive verbal and nonverbal behavior aids that counselors often display throughout counseling.
Helpful behavior
Verbal
Uses understandable words
Reflects back and clarifies helpee’s statements
Appropriately interprets
Summarizes for helpee
Responds to primary message
Use verbal reinforcers
Calls helpee by first name or you
Appropriately gives information
Answers questions about self
Uses humor occasionally to reduce tension
Is nonjudgmental and respectful
Adds greater understanding to helpee’s statement
Phrases interpretations tentatively so as to elicit genuine feedback from helpee
Nonverbal
Tone of voice similar to helpee’s
Maintains good eye contact
Occasional head nodding
Facial animation
Occasional smiling
Occasional hand gesturing
Close physical proximity to helpee
Moderate rate of speech
Body leans toward helpee
Relaxed, open posture
Confident vocal tone
Occasional touching
Nonhelpful interview behavior
Welfel and patterson 2005 list four major actions that usually block counselor-client communication and should be generally avoided; advice giving, lecturing, excessive questioning and storytelling by the counselor
Okun and Kantrowitz 2008, list other nonhelpful verbal and nonverbal behaviors.
Nonhelpful behavior
Verbal
Interrupting
Advice giving
Preaching
Placating
Blaming
Cajoling
Exhorting
Extensive probing and questioning, especially “Why” questions
Directing, demanding
Patronizing attitude
Over interpretation
Using words or jargon helpee doesn’t understand
Straying from topic
Intellectualizing
Overanalysing
Talking about self too much
Minimizing or disbelieving
Nonverbal
Loking away from helpee
Sitting for away or turned away form helpee
Sneering
Frowning
Scowling
Tight mouth
Shaking pointed finger
Distracting gestures
Yawning
Closing eyes
Unpleasant tone of voice
Rate of speech to slow or too fast
Acting rushed
According to Mehrabian 1970, physically attending behaviors such as smiling, leaning forward, making eye contact, gesturing and nodding one’s head are effective nonverbal ways of conveying to clients that the counselor is interested in and open them.
Egan 2007 summarizes five nonverbal skills involved in initial attending. They are best remembered in the acronym SOLER. The S is a reminder to face client squarely. The O is a reminder to adopt an open posture. The L reminds the counselor to lean toward the client. The E represents eye contact and the R is a reminder to the counselor to relax. A counselor need to comfortable.
Okun and Kantrowitz 2008, list supportive verbal and supportive verbal and nonverbal behavior aids that counselors often display throughout counseling.
Helpful behavior
Verbal
Uses understandable words
Reflects back and clarifies helpee’s statements
Appropriately interprets
Summarizes for helpee
Responds to primary message
Use verbal reinforcers
Calls helpee by first name or you
Appropriately gives information
Answers questions about self
Uses humor occasionally to reduce tension
Is nonjudgmental and respectful
Adds greater understanding to helpee’s statement
Phrases interpretations tentatively so as to elicit genuine feedback from helpee
Nonverbal
Tone of voice similar to helpee’s
Maintains good eye contact
Occasional head nodding
Facial animation
Occasional smiling
Occasional hand gesturing
Close physical proximity to helpee
Moderate rate of speech
Body leans toward helpee
Relaxed, open posture
Confident vocal tone
Occasional touching
Nonhelpful interview behavior
Welfel and patterson 2005 list four major actions that usually block counselor-client communication and should be generally avoided; advice giving, lecturing, excessive questioning and storytelling by the counselor
Okun and Kantrowitz 2008, list other nonhelpful verbal and nonverbal behaviors.
Nonhelpful behavior
Verbal
Interrupting
Advice giving
Preaching
Placating
Blaming
Cajoling
Exhorting
Extensive probing and questioning, especially “Why” questions
Directing, demanding
Patronizing attitude
Over interpretation
Using words or jargon helpee doesn’t understand
Straying from topic
Intellectualizing
Overanalysing
Talking about self too much
Minimizing or disbelieving
Nonverbal
Loking away from helpee
Sitting for away or turned away form helpee
Sneering
Frowning
Scowling
Tight mouth
Shaking pointed finger
Distracting gestures
Yawning
Closing eyes
Unpleasant tone of voice
Rate of speech to slow or too fast
Acting rushed
Empathy
Rogers 1961 describes empathy as the counselors ability to enter the client’s phenomenal world, to experience the client’s world as if it ware-your own without ever losing the as if quality.
According to Welfel & Patterson 2005, Empathy involves two specific skills: perception and communication.
An effective counselor perceives the cultural frame of reference from which his or her client operates; including the client’s including the client’s perceptual and cognitive process (Weinrach 1987).
Types of empathy
Culturally sensitive empathy:
This type of sensitivity, if it bridges the cultural gap between the counselor and client, is known as culturally sensitive empathy and is a quality counselors may cultivate.
Primary empathy:
Primary empathy is the ability to respond in such a way that it is apparent to both client and counselor that the counselor has understood the clients major themes.
Advanced empathy:
Advanced empathy is a process of helping a client explore themes, issues and emotions new to his or her awareness.
According to Welfel & Patterson 2005, Empathy involves two specific skills: perception and communication.
An effective counselor perceives the cultural frame of reference from which his or her client operates; including the client’s including the client’s perceptual and cognitive process (Weinrach 1987).
Types of empathy
Culturally sensitive empathy:
This type of sensitivity, if it bridges the cultural gap between the counselor and client, is known as culturally sensitive empathy and is a quality counselors may cultivate.
Primary empathy:
Primary empathy is the ability to respond in such a way that it is apparent to both client and counselor that the counselor has understood the clients major themes.
Advanced empathy:
Advanced empathy is a process of helping a client explore themes, issues and emotions new to his or her awareness.
Conducting the initial interview
There is no one place to begin an initial interview, but experts recommend that counselor start by trying to make their clients feel comfortable (Cormier & Hackney 2008). According to Myers 2000, Counselors should set aside their own agendas and focus on the person of the client, including listening to the clients story and presenting issues. This types of behavior, in which there is a genuine interest in and accepting of a client, is known as rapport.
Ivey & Ivey 2007, state that the two most important microskills for rapport building are basic attending behavior and client observation skills. A counselor needs to tune in to what the client is thinking and feeling and how he or she is behaving. In the process, counselor sensitivity to client-generated metaphors may help to convey understanding of the client’s unique way of knowing and at the same time contribute to the development of a shared language and collaborative bond between the client and counselor.
The amount of talking that clients engage in and the insight and benefits derived from the initial interview can be enhanced by the counselor who appropriately conveys empathy, encouragement, support, caring, attentiveness, acceptance and genuineness. Of all of those qualities, empathy is the most important.
Ivey & Ivey 2007, state that the two most important microskills for rapport building are basic attending behavior and client observation skills. A counselor needs to tune in to what the client is thinking and feeling and how he or she is behaving. In the process, counselor sensitivity to client-generated metaphors may help to convey understanding of the client’s unique way of knowing and at the same time contribute to the development of a shared language and collaborative bond between the client and counselor.
The amount of talking that clients engage in and the insight and benefits derived from the initial interview can be enhanced by the counselor who appropriately conveys empathy, encouragement, support, caring, attentiveness, acceptance and genuineness. Of all of those qualities, empathy is the most important.
Research in Allport’s Theory
Allport opposed the use of case studies and projective techniques with emotionally disturbed persons and opted for the study of emotionally healthy persons.
Allport favored the ideographic approach-the study of the individual case-as indicated by personal documents. However, Allport did apply the nomothetic method with his use of psychological tests like the Study of Values.
Allport conducted research on expressive behavior, which is described as behavior that expresses our personality traits (Allport & Vernon, 1933). With coping behavior, Allport identified a behavior orientation that has a specific purpose and is consciously planned and carried out. Expressive behavior is spontaneous, difficult to change, has no specific purpose, and is usually displayed without awareness (Keltner, 1997).
Considerable research and experimental work on expressive behavior has become popular today. This research has shown that personality can be assessed from audiotapes, films, and videotapes.
Reliable research has been done with expressive behaviors linked to specific traits. Studies have shown that observers can accurately assess personality factors such as anxiety from watching brief films of a person or form impressions of strangers by photographs.
In further research findings, Type A behavior patterns can be discerned from Type B behavior by their expressions of disgust, glaring, grimacing, and scowling (Heller & Haynal, 1997).
However, cultural differences have been found in the study of facial expressions and personality between Chinese infants who showed consistently less facial expression than American infants (Camras, 1998).
Allport favored the ideographic approach-the study of the individual case-as indicated by personal documents. However, Allport did apply the nomothetic method with his use of psychological tests like the Study of Values.
Allport conducted research on expressive behavior, which is described as behavior that expresses our personality traits (Allport & Vernon, 1933). With coping behavior, Allport identified a behavior orientation that has a specific purpose and is consciously planned and carried out. Expressive behavior is spontaneous, difficult to change, has no specific purpose, and is usually displayed without awareness (Keltner, 1997).
Considerable research and experimental work on expressive behavior has become popular today. This research has shown that personality can be assessed from audiotapes, films, and videotapes.
Reliable research has been done with expressive behaviors linked to specific traits. Studies have shown that observers can accurately assess personality factors such as anxiety from watching brief films of a person or form impressions of strangers by photographs.
In further research findings, Type A behavior patterns can be discerned from Type B behavior by their expressions of disgust, glaring, grimacing, and scowling (Heller & Haynal, 1997).
However, cultural differences have been found in the study of facial expressions and personality between Chinese infants who showed consistently less facial expression than American infants (Camras, 1998).
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